As one of the main burial fields of Memphis, the history of Saqqara is very closely related to the history of Memphis itself.

The oldest known funerary monument at Saqqara was built during the reign of the Horus-Aha, one of the first kings of the 1st Dynasty, at around 3.000 BC. It is located at the ridge of the northern plateau of Saqqara. This monument was a large but relatively low rectangular structure, known as a mastaba, built above the actual, subterranean tomb. There has been a lot of debate whether or not this tomb actually belonged to the Horus-Aha, or to one of the high officials who lived during his reign. The fact that a tomb dated to the reign of Aha is the oldest in Saqqara has also been an argument in another debate: the identification of the founder of the 1st Dynasty, whom legend has also credited with the founding of Memphis. Because there are apparently no tombs of importance prior to Aha’s reign, Aha is sometimes thought to have founded Memphis and thus also to have been the founder of Memphis.

The Northern plateau of Saqqara continued to be used throughout the 1st Dynasty, with the building of several large mastabas along the ridge of the plateau. As is the case with the mastaba from Aha’s reign, these mastabas too are believed by some to have been royal tombs. In most of these tombs, however, including the oldest one, the names of non-royal persons are prominently featured, often one name per tomb. This, along with the fact that the kings of the 1st Dynasty all had tombs at Umm el-Qa’ab in Middle Egypt, has led the present author to think that the Saqqara tombs were, indeed, private tombs.

To the West of these large mastabas smaller tombs, belonging perhaps to some less important officials, were built. The oldest of these tombs are relatively small and simple, some not much more than a hole in the ground with a small funerary chapel. This cemetery continued to extend to the West throughout the first dynasties, until the end of the Old Kingdom.

Saqqara definitely became a royal necropolis with the beginning of the 2nd Dynasty, around 2.800 BC. At least the first and third king of this dynasty built their tombs there, and there are reasons to believe that the second king did the same.

It is not known why these kings chose to move the royal necropolis from Umm el-Qa'ab to Saqqara, and it has often been suggested that their motivation might have been political or religious. Even though they moved to Saqqara, the first kings of the 2nd Dynasty also moved away from the older cemetery along the Northern plateau discussed above, choosing an area slightly more to the South, to the location where some 150 years later, Djoser would also build his famous Step Pyramid. The structure of their tombs too was very different from their predecessors’: in stead of pits dug into the ground with side chambers, the tombs of the first kings of the 2nd Dynasty consisted of a very long, descending corridor, with a maze of long, narrow galleries. The burial chamber was located at the end of the descending corridor. It is not known if the tombs, at this stage, also had a superstructure. Later examples of this type of tomb were covered by a long, narrow building, the center part slightly higher than its sides and with a rounded roof. These tombs were probably also connected with the large, rectangular enclosures, built in mud-brick, found more to the West. The function and purpose of these enclosures, which often had a raised platform slightly off-center, are not known.

After the first three kings of the 2nd Dynasty, royal attention again turned to Umm el-Qa'ab. This, however, does not imply that royal presence at Saqqara ceased. At least the last king of the 2nd Dynasty, Khasekhemwi, appears to have built a large tomb-like construction there, its structure very similar to the oldest 2nd Dynasty royal tombs. The large rectangular construction known today as the "Great Enclosure" or "Gisr el-Mudir", to the Southwest of the more recent Step-Pyramid of Djoser, is thought to have been built by Khasekhemwi. If so, it is the oldest known structure that was at least partially built in stone in stead of mud-brick: the rectangular platform off-center inside the enclosure was built in stone. Because a tomb and enclosure dated to the reign of Khasekhemwi have also been found at Umm el-Qa'ab, it is not known where this king was buried.

One of Khasekhemwi’s successors, named Netjerikhet but known better as Djoser would drastically change the shape of the royal funerary monument. His architect, Imhotep, combined the subterranean tomb with the enclosure, which were previously built at some distance from each other. The enclosure was no longer built in mud-brick but in limestone. Structures and buildings that perhaps were erected in wood in the older enclosures, were now also built in limestone.

In addition, the rectangular platform that stood off-center inside the enclosure was built above the tomb and it was heightened and extended. At a certain stage during its construction, the enclosure appears to have been enlarged, and so was the platform. Three other platforms, one smaller than the other, were built on top of each other and on top of the original platform. Thus the shape of a Step-Pyramid, consisting of 4 steps, was conceived. Later still, this Step-Pyramid was again extended and two extra steps were added. While extending the Step-Pyramid and the surrounding complex, the older structure believed to have been a tomb for Khasekhemwi, was incorporated as the Western Wall of Djoser’s complex. Other older tombs were also encountered during the extension of the Step-Pyramid towards the East. They appear to have been examined, in part also used as a deposit of literally thousands of vessels and pots and were then covered by the eastern extension of the pyramid. The human remains found in some of these shafts were originally believed to have belonged to members of Djoser’s family, but recent research has shown that these remains are several generations older than Djoser.

Thus was Djoser’s impact, that most other kings of the Old Kingdom would be buried at a necropolis near Memphis. The first of them, a king named Sekhemkhet, remained at Saqqara and built a complex similar to Djoser’s to the Southwest of it. It was left unfinished after a perhaps very short reign.

Only part of the first step of the Step-Pyramid was completed, the enclosure wall was not built to its full height and most of the internal buildings are missing. Had it been completed, it would have been larger and more impressive than Djoser’s. After Sekhemkhet, building activity at Saqqara decreased. This can in part be explained by the fact that most of the kings of the 4th Dynasty would prefer Giza or Abu Rawash to the North and Dashur to the South for their burial. Because government during the 4th Dynasty was highly centralised and consisted mainly of members of the royal family, most high-ranking officials moved to the vicinity of the monument of their king as well. This, however, does not imply that Saqqara was completely abandoned, as some private tombs dated to the 4th Dynasty were found in the area North of Djoser’s pyramid. Like most other private tombs of this period, they were mastabas. By this time, the interior of the superstructure, serving as a funerary chapel where offerings would be presented to the deceased, consisted of several chambers, most of them decorated. The decoration usually shows offering processions, the preparation of offerings, festivities and sometimes (standardised) themes from daily life. The most important room inside the mastaba was the offering room where a so-called false door would serve as passage between the world of the living and the world of the dead. From within one of these chambers a shaft would lead downwards towards the actual tomb.

The first king to return to Saqqara after a century, was Shepseskaf, the last king of the 4th Dynasty. But even in returning to Saqqara, Shepseskaf chose a site at some distance to the South of the older monuments. In fact, Shepseskaf’s funerary monument is the Southern most at the site. Shepseskaf also differs from his 4th Dynasty predecessors in the type of monument he had built. By his reign, the royal burial monument had evolved from a Step-Pyramid with surrounding complex to a true pyramid with the funerary temple attached to it. For unknown reasons, Shepseskaf decided not to build a pyramid or a Step-Pyramid, but a tomb shaped like a large sarcophagus.

This innovation would, however, be very short-lived, as Shepseskaf’s successor, Userkaf, the founder of the 5th Dynasty, returned to the more traditional pyramid-tomb. From then on, the dimensions and shape of the pyramid and the temple connected to it would become more and more standardised. As location for his tomb, Userkaf chose to stay at Saqqara but returned to the already extensively used northern cemeteries, building his monument at the Northeast corner of Djoser’s old complex. Still, Userkaf deviated from the 4th Dynasty standard by building his funerary temple to the South of his pyramid and not to the East. Whether this was due to geological circumstances or a deliberate imitation of the orientation of Djoser’s complex is not certain.

Most of the other kings of the 5th Dynasty preferred a relatively new site, known today as Abusir, located a couple of kilometres to the North of Saqqara. It is during this period that the pyramid and funerary complex would reach the standard that would be followed to some degree until the end of the Old Kingdom: the shape and dimensions of the pyramid were established, as well as the layout and decoration-themes of the funerary temple. Contrary to the 4th Dynasty, however, many of the 5th Dynasty high officials, such as the famous vizier Ptahhotep, would continue to be buried at Saqqara. During the 5th Dynasty, most high officials were not related directly to the royal family and would prefer burial near their own homes or near the tombs of their own ancestors.

The two last kings of the 5th Dynasty returned, again for unknown reasons, to Saqqara. The first of them, Djedkare, built a pyramid at Saqqara-South, about halfway between Shepseskaf’s tomb and Djoser’s Step-Pyramid.

Unas, the last king of the 5th Dynasty, erected his funerary monument between the 3rd Dynasty monuments of Djoser and Sekhemkhet. The causeway that ran between his badly damaged mortuary temple, connected to the pyramid, and the Valley temple, is preserved in some spots. It was, like all such causeways, roofed and its walls were decorated with fine reliefs. In building his monument, some stones and blocks coming from Djoser’s complex were re-used, an indication that parts of the famous 3rd Dynasty monuments had already fallen into ruins by the time Unas built his own pyramid. Unas’ pyramid would become the center of a cemetery for members of his own family and for high officials.

To the North and South of his causeway, the area is literally honeycombed with tombs. Some of these tombs were traditional mastabas; others were pit-tombs. The famous mastaba of the "two brothers", Khnumhotep and Ni-ankh-khnum, was built adjacent to the causeway.

Saqqara remained the royal necropolis throughout the 6th Dynasty. Its founder, Teti, built his pyramid complex to the Northeast of Userkaf’s. Thus the monuments of Sekhemkhet in the Southwest, Unas, Djoser, Userkaf and Teti in the Northeast were built along an almost straight line, with Djoser’s monument in the middle.

Immediately North of Teti’s Pyramid, a new, private cemetery was created. Famous viziers such as Kagemni and Mereruka were buried underneath the most exquisitely decorated mastabas. The false door in the offering chapel of Mereruka’s mastaba shows a more than life-size statue of Mereruka coming from the world of the dead to accept his daily offerings.

It is not known where Teti’s successor, Userkare, believed to have been a usurper who murdered his predecessor, was buried. Pepi I, Merenre (Nemtimsaf I) and Pepi II all favoured Saqqara-South. During the New Kingdom, the name of the funerary complex of Pepi I, Men-nefer, was extended to the temple of Ptah which almost stood due East of the pyramid. From there, the same name was extended to the city where the temple stood and was transformed by the Greeks into "Memphis".

After the long reign of Pepi II, which did not result in a larger funerary monument, the Old Kingdom gradually started to collapse. Central government in Memphis lost its control and Egypt fragmented into many, semi-independent and competing states. Memphis itself lost its status as capital and most important city in the country, and this can be noticed at Saqqara as well.

A small pyramid, with a modestly built funerary chapel to the North, was used by Ibi of the 7th/8th Dynasty. He would be the last king to be buried at Saqqara. It is not unlikely, however, that "his" pyramid was originally intended for another king.

Private burials at Saqqara continued for some time after the collapse of the Old Kingdom, but the quality of the tombs and their decoration deteriorated quickly. By the end of the 1st Intermediate Period, burials at Saqqara would almost come to a full stop.

There apparently were no new burials at Saqqara during the Middle Kingdom. This probably was the result of several factors:

• During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt’s capitals were Thebes during the 11th Dynasty and Itj-Tawi in the Fayum-oasis during the 12th. Memphis does not appear to have had any special status at that time. It is thus not surprising that the Egyptian notables preferred other burial sites.

• It is not unlikely that a number of Old Kingdom tombs were re-used. Re-use of older monuments and tombs was not unusual in Egypt.

The number of burials during the 2nd Intermediate Period is very low throughout the whole of Egypt, and with Egypt again fragmented at that time, there appear to have been as good as no new burials at Saqqara.

This was to change with the rise of the New Kingdom and the 18th Dynasty, around 1500 BC. At this time, Egypt turned its attention to beyond its traditional borders, maintaining international relationships and an army ready to defend Egypt’s properties abroad. Even though Thebes was the official capital, at least at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, Memphis re-gained a lot of its ancient status, becoming one of the prime residences of the royal family and nobility. The old necropolis of Saqqara, practically abandoned for a couple of centuries, would share in Memphis’ newly gained importance.

The cemetery North of Teti’s pyramid, dominated by the old mastabas of Mereruka and Kagemni, was used again. At the same time, we notice that Teti was venerated as a local god at Saqqara, perhaps as the divine protector of the cemetery. Unfortunately, nothing much remains of New Kingdom tombs at this particular cemetery as excavators of the late 19th and early 20th century, interested in finding Old Kingdom tombs, simply discarded more recent finds.

A second New Kingdom necropolis evolved to the South of Unas’ causeway. Burials appear to go back at least to the middle of the 18th Dynasty, but the most beautiful ones are dated to the reigns of Tutankhamun of the 18th and Ramesses II of the 19th Dynasty.

From the time of Tutankhamun come the exquisitely decorated funerary temples and tombs of Horemheb, who at the time of the construction of this tomb was still the supreme general of Tutankhamun’s army, and of chancellor Maya. The mastaba of the Old Kingdom was replaced by a funerary temple shaped like a standard New Kingdom temple, with a massive gate (pylon), some open courts and in the back, the funerary chapel where a statue or relief of the deceased would accept the daily offerings. A shaft from one of the open courts would lead down to the tomb. The tomb of Maya was decorated with finely painted reliefs, equal in quality to the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes.

From the time of Ramesses II comes the tomb of Tia and Tia, brother-in-law and sister of the king. It is even believed that the 4th son of Ramesses II, the highpriest of the Memphite temple of Ptah, Khaemwaset, may have been buried at Saqqara. At least, some ushebties, statues representing the deceased, belonging to Khaemwaset were found there. This is not surprising when one knows that Khaemwaset, who would later become the hero in a cycle of popular tales, showed particular interest in the necropolis of Saqqara. His actions there would forever connect his name to the site. Not only did he restore ancient monuments, as witnessed by the restoration-inscription on the South face of the pyramid of Unas, he also founded or extended, by the orders of his father, the subterranean maze of rooms used for the burial of the sacred Apis bulls. This structure, known today by its Greek name, "Serapeum", would continue to be used and extended until the Greek-Roman Period.Other cemeteries for sacred animals, such as the cow (Isis) or the dog (Anubis) would also be created at Saqqara. In part, these animal-cemeteries would come to play the same role as the royal monuments of the Old Kingdom: they would become the central points for private cemeteries that evolved around them.

By the end of the New Kingdom, Saqqara was also used by the Memphite middle-classes. They often re-used older tombs for entire families. The mummies found there will prove to be an interesting source for scientists studying the human condition in Memphis of that era.

Private burials of the upper and middle classes would continue at least until the early Roman Period. This is shown, among others, by the enormous shaft-tombs of the 26th Dynasty that were built in the forecourt of the funerary temple of Userkaf.

During the Roman Period, the number of burials at Saqqara decreased. With the coming of Christianity, the cult of the ancient gods and the related burial of sacred animals became less and less popular and from 391 AD on, was forbidden. Funerary practices changed as well.

The ancient practice of mummification and the creation of beautifully decorated temples and tombs for the deceased were considered demonic by the early Christians, who preferred to simply commit their dead to the grounds. With the Roman occupation and more with the general acceptance of Christianity throughout Egypt, the pharaonic culture ceased to be. And with the end of the pharaonic culture, so ends our story of more than 3000 years of Ancient Egyptian burials at Saqqara.